20101019

White tradition and the Indian world

The Phillips Brooks of the (American) Indian Race and White Tradition
The Reverend E. Clifford Cutler
September 27, 2010

Introduction
In 2009 the Episcopal Church’s 76th General Convention voted to repudiate the Doctrine of Discovery propounded by English King Henry VII in 1496. It held that Christian sovereigns could assert dominion over non-Christian lands they “discovered” with the full blessing of the Church. Each Diocese was encouraged to reflect upon its own history of colonization of indigenous peoples. If, as the resolution states, this doctrine continues to be invoked in court cases it deserves our repudiation. On the other hand, the more we look toward hierarchy and kings the more we miss the reality of relationship and interaction between Native and White that have existed over hundreds of years and is much more nuanced than what the resolution presupposes.

As I look at my ministry in mostly white churches it has been twinned throughout with Native history. The reason this surprises me is, I suppose, that we overlook what we oppress, like the many impoverished areas of our inner-city that we drive by on Interstate 95 but do not see. My ministry began in one of those areas, Kensington, the Indian name for which was Shackamaxon. The Lenni Lenape (meaning real or original people) Tribe of American Indians came to the Kensington area from the west and took this land from the Allegewi (from which we get the name Alleghany) Tribe. When the name Delaware was given to the river, the Lenni Lenape Indians became known as the Delawares. The name of their village, Shackamaxon, meant “the place of the chiefs.” The significance of this bit of history is that often Indians were settlers, too. They as well as whites were seeking security in the land. Historian John Mack Faragher observed, “The American conflict with the Indians came not because they were so alien to each other but precisely because they were so much alike.” (11, p. 6).

Penn Treaty Park on the Delaware River at Columbia Avenue marks the spot where according to tradition William Penn made a treaty with leaders of the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) Indians in 1682 concerning land rights. William Penn “purchased rather than seized Indian land partly for humane reasons, but also because he needed to clear it of prior titles in order to sell it to settlers. Penn was a benevolent colonist, but a colonist nonetheless.” (7, p. 18).

For many years in Penn Treaty Park there was a large elm tree under which the meeting was said to be held. The tree blew down around 1810, and in 1827 a marble monument was erected to commemorate the spot” (13, p. 18). In 1981 when I was there the words carved on the four sides of the monument were almost obliterated, but they could still be deciphered and read: “Placed by the Penn Society, A.D. 1827… To mark the site of the Great Elm Tree… Treaty Ground of William Penn and the Indian natives 1682… Unbroken Faith… Pennsylvania Founded 1681… By deeds of Penn.” A canvas painted by Benjamin West hangs in Independence Hall portraying this event. The 37 foot high statue of William Penn on top of City Hall faces this historic park in Kensington.

My next church was Saint Stephen’s Church in Cohasset, Massachusetts. The church was begun by Cyrus Bates who in 1868 left Cohasset for Minnesota. There he met the Episcopal Bishop Henry B. Whipple and his brother George, an Episcopal priest. Bates was so impressed by the care and love of these brothers for the 20,000 Chippewa in Minnesota that he became a communicant of the Episcopal Church. He left Minnesota in 1872 to return to Boston. Four years later Bishop Whipple would chair the government commission that met with the Sioux after Custer’s defeat at Little Big Horn. When Bates moved back to Cohasset he missed the outward expression of evangelical faith that he had found in the Whipples’ ministry and in 1892 called for the establishment of an Episcopal Church in town.

Finally, my ministry has brought me to Saint Paul’s Church in Chestnut Hill whose second rector, William Hobart Hare wrote to our parish’s children from Minnesota shortly after Little Crow’s War in 1862. His letter was a response to having seen a crude sign that read: “$250 REWARD FOR THE HEAD OF A DEAD SIOUX INDIAN.” He wrote to the children in 1863: “I have not forgotten you nor your monthly collections since I have been away, and I now write because I want to interest you in the poor Indians of whom I have lately seen a good deal. There is a war raging in this state against them so that now we never see them…” Thirty years later, in 1892, Hare, now Bishop of Niobrara, ordained as priest Philip J. Deloria whose Dakota name was Tipi Sapa (Black Lodge). He “became an outstanding preacher and orator and was called the Phillips Brooks of the Indian race by people in the East who had heard both men speak.” (4, p. 61). Deloria is one of three Americans among the 98 “Saints of the Ages” in the reredos of the high altar of the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. Another was Phillips Brooks. None of Deloria’s family was invited to the unveiling of the statue. Tipi Sapa’s grandson is Philip “Sam” Deloria whose challenge to me is to learn my own tradition and allow Indians to find their own identity and live into their own path. And so this paper is a response to the 76th General Convention, a pulling apart the twinning of my ministry to examine my own tradition, and a response to Sam’s challenge. It is an exploration of my family’s beginnings in Massachusetts to Philadelphia and the Ohio to North Dakota where Saint Paul’s has taken its young people each summer.

The Great Migration – Arrival of James Cutler
Between 1629 and 1642 during what became known as the Great Migration, 20,000 English, mostly Puritan and Puritan sympathizers emigrated to New England. Among them was James Cutler, born in England and settled as early as 1634 in Watertown, Massachusetts.

Scapegoating – The Witchcraft Crisis of 1692
The New England Puritan worldview taught the English settlers that they were a chosen people. They had been “charged with bringing God’s message to a heathen land previously ruled by the devil.” (9, p. 295) By 1692 the New England Indians and Euramericans had been in armed conflict throughout the region for two decades. The witchcraft crisis in Salem, Massachusetts needs to be understood against the background of unrelenting frontier warfare. (9, p. 12) Less than a month after the devastating Indian surprise attack on the town of York the first person in Salem was identified as a witch. She was known to all primarily as an Indian. When the bewitched girls were asked who tormented them, they “named a woman with whom they were intimately acquainted, and who could be seen as representing the people who were then “tormenting” New England as a whole.” (9, p. 21) It was a classic case of scapegoating. Mark Heim in his book Saved from Sacrifice: A Theology of the Cross, writes: “Scapegoating sacrifice is the prototypical ‘good bad thing’ in human culture, a calibrated dose of unjust violence that wards off wider unrestrained violence.” (5, p. 64) This worked by turning attention away from the ineffectiveness of the region’s leaders to the sacrifice of one who was innocent of the torment of which she was accused.

Race: Mary Rowlandson, Metacom’s or King Philip’s War
Mary Rowlandson, wife of a Puritan clergyman who during Metacom’s War was captured on February 10, 1675, belonged to that portion of humanity deemed by Europeans as “civilized,” whereas the natives were mere “savages.” (12, p. 27) Puritanism was a belief system in which colonists typically viewed “godly” people to be morally if not politically superior to the “ungodly.” (12, p. 8) Mary, however, reserved “her greatest contempt for native converts to Christianity” (12, p. 41) where one would have thought that conversion had brought them into the “godly” camp. This polarity between civilized and savage was terribly difficult to maintain. Frontier residents understood their world primarily through the face to face contact with others that included the Native people in their midst. So to a significant degree Metacom’s war was a war between neighbors. Mary in her captivity could communicate with her captors in English, found her leaders and militia often ineffective against flintlock-armed native warriors, and encountered anti-English Indians who professed Christianity. When the “savage” label could no longer be made to work in terms of religion or even culture, then it could and would be made to stick in terms of what the 19th century would call “race.” Neal Salisbury suggests that the long term effect of Rowlandson’s captivity narrative was this shift toward the issue of race.

The Question of Race in Pennsylvania
During the “long peace” begun by William Penn from the 1680s to the 1750s hundreds of thousands of Scots-Irish migrated to America taking the Great Philadelphia Wagon Road through Pennsylvania to Georgia and across the Appalachians. Colin Calloway writes, “People who had been colonized by England on the Celtic fringes of the British Isles brooked little restraint when they themselves became colonizers and carved out new borderlands in North America.” (1, p. 37) The racial prejudice against Welsh, Scots and Irish was a contagion that spread to the new world against Indians as devastating as the European-derived diseases such as small pox that eradicated On-a-Slant Village of the Mandan tribe near where our young people go each summer. David Preston sees race as a thread that is woven throughout our history. “Euroamericans’ mass killings of Indians at Kittanning (1756) and Conestoga (1763) seem to eerily foreshadow later massacres at Sand Creek and Wounded Knee in the 1800s.” (11, p. 20) Pennsylvania’s Paxton Boys, Presbyterian Ulster squatters, made no distinction between “friendly” and “Hostile” Indians. In fact, they chose to kill the Conestogas “precisely because they were peaceful and lived under government protection.” It was their way of challenging the government authority. Their defenders argued that “killing Indians was a form of loyal opposition to bad government. This idea reached fruition,” argues Kevin Kenny, “during the American Revolution, when exterminating Indians became an act of patriotism. Unlike their counterparts in Virginia, revolutionary Pennsylvanians did not find the bedrock of white freedom in black slavery. Instead, they built their new society by annihilating the Indians in their midst.” (7, p. 231). Today, Kenny observes, “Pennsylvania Indians are much worse off than its other residents. They are four times more likely to live below the poverty line and twice as likely to be unemployed. Pennsylvania is one of only 12 states without an Indian reservation. And it is one of only six where no Indian tribe is recognized by the state or federal government.” (Inquirer, June 11, 2009)

William Penn and Colonization of Land
Pennsylvania did not start out to build its “peaceable kingdom” on the racial exclusion of its native Indians. Under the Doctrine of Discovery, I suppose, Charles II gave William Penn 29 million acres in what would become Pennsylvania, making him the largest individual landlord in the British Empire. Europeans moving in did not find a vacant wilderness. A 1677 map of southern New England, facing west, showed English towns dominating the landscape, with remaining Indians pushed to the periphery. This was certainly more covetous desire than reality. In 18th century Pennsylvania Indian farms and families still lined the Juniata and Susquehanna Valleys. “Penn naturally believed that land could be privately owned by individuals and that its occupants could permanently relinquish their title in return for money or goods. This idea ran counter to the ethos of Pennsylvania’s Indians, who held their land in tribal trusts rather than as individuals and used it to sustain life rather than to make a profit.” (7, p. 4) Penn found to be anathema both the ideas of “erasing” Indians from the mapped landscape, or that “unworked” land ought to be seized and made productive. He had respect for the original inhabitants of the land. Nevertheless, he was a colonizer.

John Woolman and pure universal Righteousness
The Quaker mystic John Woolman set out for Wyalusing, Pennsylvania in 1763 at the end of the French and Indian or Seven Years’ War. He hoped to “feel and understand (the Indians’) life and the spirit they live in, if haply I might receive some instruction from them, or they be in any degree helped forward by my following the Leadings of Truth amongst them.” (8, p. 127) Delaware and Shawnee warriors were attacking forts in Cumberland County, burning houses, fences and fields and killing the families that worked and lived there. Before Woolman left his home in New Jersey an express arrived from Pittsburgh saying that Indians had taken a fort and scalped English people. Still, Woolman set out comforted with the Redeemer’s prayer, “I pray not that thou shouldst take them out of the world, but that thou shouldst keep them from evil (Jn. 17: 9).” (8, p. 123).

Woolman discerned a “pure universal righteousness” that bound all in mutual regard. He wrote: “… a weighty and heavenly care came over my mind, and love filled my heart toward all mankind…” Finally in Wyalusing at a prayer meeting Woolman found it in his heart to pray without interpretation so that only divine love would be heard. Chief Papunehang who lived from about 1705 to 1775 and was a spiritual leader of his people both before and after becoming a Christian listened as Woolman prayed. As the meeting broke up Papunehang said to one of the interpreters, “I love to feel where words come from.” (8, p. 133)

Manasseh Cutler and National Expansion
The Reverend Manasseh Cutler and I are descended from James who came to America in the Great Migration. He is descended from James’ first wife Anna while I am descended from James’ second wife Mary. The barest thread connects us. Manasseh was born in 1742 and undertook the mission to Congress for the establishment of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and the Ohio Purchase. Manasseh Cutler has been called the Benjamin Franklin of New England for his scientific achievement. When he actually met the aged Franklin he was in awe. The Ohio Company of which he was a director was formed for the purchase of public lands for settlement and to absorb the vast economic debt of the country after the Revolution. This meant not only making the purchase from Congress but also working with Congress to devise regulations for the settlement. Historian Colin Calloway writes, “The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 proclaimed that the United States would observe ‘the utmost good faith’ in its dealings with Indian people and that the Indians’ lands would not be invaded or taken from them except in ‘just and lawful wars authorized by Congress.’ However,” Calloway continues, “the ordinance also laid out the blueprint for national expansion.” (1, p. 40)

William Clark and Dependency without Resentment
In 1804 the Northwest Corps of Discovery made its way up the Missouri. In the month of the fall of leaves, October, William Clark, Meriwether Lewis and their party passed the abandoned ruins of On-a-Slant Village and met a Mandan hunting party. They stayed with them nearly 5 and ½ months. In the month of the Ripe Wild Plums, August (1806) Clark worked to bring a delegation of Mandan and Hidatsa chiefs to meet with President Jefferson. He viewed himself as an explainer of the Indian culture to whites and a defender of native peoples against white greed and violence. He took as inevitable the national expansion anticipated by the Ordinance of 1787 and envisioned white and Indian communities that would be similar but separate. His brokerage between the two peoples was paternalistic with respect to native peoples and had as its goal “dependency without resentment” (14, p. 86). “When Native Americans refused to play by his rules,” writes historian James Ronda, “Clark could speak only of punishment…” (14, p. 97).

Evan Jones, Brotherly love and Divine justice
In 1821, the Baptist Board of Foreign Missions in Philadelphia sent 33-year-old Evan Jones, his wife and four children to serve the Cherokee Nation. He and his son John would become “the most successful Protestant missionaries of their day.” (14, p. 99) Their names are still remembered with honor and respect even by Cherokees who did not become Christian. For the Jones’, God was not white or red. Unlike Manasseh Cutler and William Clark they doubted that God was the patron of white expansion. They encouraged the Cherokee faithful to make Christianity their own and not a white man’s religion, and did not deride those who clung to the old ways. They simply believed that the God of Jesus was a source of greater community, strength and justice. From the Bible they and their Cherokee brothers and sisters drew on passages that clearly portrayed God as on the side of the oppressed. After only a year Evan Jones began work on translating the Bible into Cherokee. And even though the Mission Board insisted that schools teach in English (the Indian languages being deemed too crude to convey the “complex concepts of a civilized, Christian society” 14, p. 108), the Jones’ taught reading and writing in the Cherokee language. They took up the politics of fighting a federal policy that supported frontier intrusion on the side of justice for the Indians they served. “Cherokee revitalization and not assimilation was their goal…” (14, p. 100)

Philadelphia and Buffalo Bill Cody’s Wild West Show
Interestingly, the Wild West Show caused consternation in its day on the part of Indian Bureau personnel and Philadelphia’s Indian Right’s Association because it showed the public tableaux of earlier Indian life before reservations had closed in. Those who promoted “civilization programs” to eradicate this way of life or assimilate it to white standards opposed Cody’s Show. The show brought Indians into contact with the eastern cities. Sitting Bull’s closest friend among Cody’s performers was Annie Oakley. According to her, in the tradition of generosity prized by the Sioux, Sitting Bull gave much of the money he earned “to the ragged children he encountered in the cities. Their presence had corroborated what he already suspected. Euramericans would not do much for the Indians when they let their own people go hungry. Indians must rely on themselves. ‘The white man knows how to make everything,’ Stanley Vestal quotes him as saying, ‘but he does not know how to distribute it.’” (14, p. 167). Of course the Show also exploited the Indians. In its Philadelphia performance, a young Lakota named Standing Bear from the Carlisle Indian School was in the audience. Years later he recalled Sitting Bull’s speech about ending the fighting and the need to educate children. He said that he and his friends were on the way to Washington “to shake hands with the Great Father and talk about peace.” The white man appointed by the show to translate gave a lurid rendition of the Battle of Little Big Horn that the chief had not mentioned at all! “He told so many lies,” recalled Standing Bear, “that I had to smile.” (15, p. 263).

William Hobart Hare, Education and the Intermingling of the Races
William Hobart Hare was born in Princeton in 1838. He graduated from Episcopal Academy, attended the University of Pennsylvania and at the age of 22 became the second Rector of Saint Paul’s Church, Chestnut Hill. He became Bishop of Niobrara to the Great Sioux nation in 1873. The next year he wrote to President Grant opposing the exploration by General Custer and 1200 troops of the sacred Black Hills. Sitting Bull valued Bishop Hare’s efforts to educate the children of his people. In 1884 at Standing Rock Sitting Bull declared the White Robes (Episcopalians, for their white surplices) to be the Indians’ best friends. Hare opposed the “civilization programs” of his day. “I say these people are an intensely religious people,” he declared in a New York speech. “You must not hand them over to mere civilization.” (6, p. 81-2).
Tipi Sapa’s granddaughter (Sam Deloria’s sister) Barbara Sanchez values Hare’s appreciation of the critical thinking skills of the Sioux. She notes: “Our people had to survive in the wild by observing, describing, evaluating, applying and synthesizing their environment.” Hare sought to provide the tools that were needed so children could become independent learners and participate in the new culture that was coming. Sitting Bull consented to have his thirteen-year-old stepson Little Soldier enrolled in Hare’s school. In the 1883 Annual Report Hare observed: “Six boys from the captive band of Sitting Bull have been in St. Paul’s School during the past year, an addition of three to that number who were there last year from that band. It sets one to thinking, the fact that there were no six boys in the school quicker to learn, more tractable and more ready to coalesce with the general life of the school than this group fresh from the wildest Indian life, which had spurned the control of the Government, and asked only the privilege of ceaseless hunting and roaming. How hard it is sometimes to square our theories with our facts!” (6, p. 230-1). Racial prejudice brought criticism of Hare’s efforts to educate. Hare wrote: “We all remember when it was thought by some of our emigrant population an offense for which a man’s head should be broken – that he undertake to teach a negro. It is a similar offense in the eyes of some people out on the frontier to undertake to befriend an Indian.” (6, p. 109).
Hare’s method was what he called “identification.” “(L)et there be identification with the subjects of our effort. This is an essential of Christian work always, everywhere, and among all classes. The fundamental of our Christian faith is the identification of the Son of God with the subjects of His interest. ‘He took manhood into God,’ and if He did this in His person He did it also in His life. He put Himself on a level with the woman of Samaria, identified Himself with her by asking a favor, ‘Give me to drink,’ before He undertook to touch the sore place in her heart. It was this Christ living in him that made St. Paul identify himself with the people of Lycaonia and say, ‘He gave us rain from heaven, and fruitful seasons, filling our hearts with food and gladness.’ Our religion is a ladder whose top, to be sure, reaches unto heaven; but only as we enable men to see it set up on earth right alongside them, as God placed the ladder alongside Jacob in his vision, will men realize that our religion is for each one the gate of heaven. A well-meaning tract distributor once told me of his discomfiture by reason of failure to practice identification. As he passed along through the market he handed a butcher a tract. The butcher called after him, ‘Say, mister, have you read it yourself?’ And as he had not read it he beat a quick retreat.” (6, p. 337)

Hare identified with the wounded Sioux recovering in his mission church after the Wounded Knee massacre. After attending to needs on the Standing Rock Reserve, in late December Bishop Hare went to the Pine Ridge Reserve, “on which the Wounded Knee fight had just occurred.” (6, p.240) Our country had learned little since the killing of the Conestogas in Pennsylvania over a century earlier. In January, 1891, Hare wrote in the “Bishop’s Record” of The Church News: “My visit to Pine Ridge Reserve brought me to a scene which contrasted so shockingly with all the signs of progress and peace which have greeted me on my visits for six or eight years past that time will not efface it from my memory…. on entering the church, two sights presented themselves. On the church floor, instead of pews on either side of the aisle, two rows of bleeding, groaning, wounded men, women and children; tending them two military surgeons and a native physician assisted by the missionary and his helpers, assiduity and tenderness marking all…. Above, the Christmas green was still hanging. To one of my moods they seemed a mockery to all my faith and hope; to another they seemed an inspiration still singing, though in a minor key, ‘Peace, good will to men.” (6, p. 240)

Hare envisioned the eventual intermingling of the Indian and white races. He disapproved of the reservation system and thought the Dawes Allotment Act of 1887 “an achievement of incalculable value.” (6, p. 279) It would open up 11 million acres to white settlers and force their intermingling, what we might call integration today. Tipi Sapa (Philip Deloria) and most of the chiefs were strongly opposed to the ceding of lands. Church business at Standing Rock kept Tipi Sapa away from negotiations about the giving up of land. Vine Deloria Jr. recalls, “We have always wondered if Bishop Hare did not create the church business that kept Philip from the meetings, since the bishop was a strong advocate of allotment and its role in breaking the power of the family in Indian political matters.” (4, p. 66)

Today
August 28 was set aside as A Day of Unity at the Central States Fair. “In West River,” reports Tim Giago, an Oglala Lakota, “Natives and whites, are working together to address and end the shameful race problems in South Dakota.” (Indianz.com. August 30, 2010, “Tim Giago: Some Positive Change in Race relations in South Dakota.”) Despite severe reductions to the size of reservations, Hare’s intermingling has not succeeded. That same month, New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg criticized tribal selling of untaxed cigarettes. The racism did not go unnoticed. “You know,” he advised New York Governor David Patterson, “get yourself a cowboy hat and a shotgun. If there’s ever a great video, it’s you standing in the middle of the New York State Thruway saying, you know, ‘Read my lips: The law of the land is this and we’re going to enforce the law…” Barry Snyder, President of the Seneca nation replied that Mayor Bloomberg could use a refresher course on the U.S. Constitution and the need to honor Indian treaties. (Indianz.com. August 16, 2010, “New York Mayor wants Tribes shown ‘Shot Gun’ for Tax Issues.”) This past June in Montreal at a girls’ soccer game, white players and parents for the St. Hubert team playing against a Mohawk team made racist comments, featherhead gestures and called them “sauvages.” One of the reasons we send our young people to the Standing Rock Reservation is provide a peer relation with whites where there is respect.

Conclusion
There are some “canaries in our coal mine” that when they begin to labor, call us to pay attention to what Jung would call our shadow. Scapegoating should recall us to Jesus who died an innocent, sacrificial victim so that there would be no more victims but people with names and worth whose well-being is our concern because it is God’s concern. Racism with its source in Puritanism and the Scots-Irish emigration remains with us and gets unnoticed by the majority group, witness the recent New Yorker cartoon:


This Week's New Yorker Cartoon Caption Contest Winner: Pretty Racist

(Indianz.com responded)
“Look, we're all post-racial liberal elites here who love us some New Yorker cartoons. But we can't help but think this week's winner of the cartoon caption contest is a bit offensive.
“Seriously, New Yorker cartoon editors? You chose this as a finalist? And seriously, New Yorker readers? You voted for it?
“Here are a few other hilarious captions we imagine must have almost made the cut:
• Uh oh, Gov. Paterson is trying to tax their cigarettes again!
• Quick, have the federal government wage a decades-long campaign of genocide and displacement against them!
• Dang redskins tryin' to steal my Blackberry!
“Since when did (comedian) Carlos Mencia start judging the New Yorker cartoon contest?
“Update: Oh, also we should add that, as it's the New Yorker, this cartoon is probably meant to be an ironic commentary on the half-hearted reparations Indians have received in the form of the semi-autonomy which allows them to build casinos on their land, or something. But still—it's just dumb.
(Indianz.com, September 21, 2010, “Gawker: Offensive Winner of New Yorker Cartoon Caption Contest.”)
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Positively, the white, Euramerican tradition also includes the “pure universal righteousness” of a John Woolman. There is expansionism and patronization for sure, but also the justice and political fervor of an Evan Jones. There is William Hobart Hare’s courage to risk teaching Indian children on the frontier and his naïve desire for “intermingling.” Our task as Sam Deloria declares is to learn our tradition and grow into the best of it: compassion, faith, mutual regard, bridging cultures and respecting differences (rather than eradicating them through assimilation), justice, peace, education, identifying with others, empathy.

Bibliography

1. Calloway, Colin G., White People, Indians, and Highlanders: Tribal People and Colonial Encounters in Scotland and America; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.

2. Cooper, Jr., James F. and Minkema, Kenneth P., Editors, The Sermon Notebook of Samuel Parris, 1689-1694; Boston: The Colonial Society of Massachusetts, distributed by the University Press of Virginia, 1993.

3. Cutler, E. Clifford and Hamrick, Scott, Editors, Coming Full Circle: St. Paul’s, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, PA in Partnership with Standing Rock Episcopal Community of North Dakota; Philadelphia: Visible Mission, Inc., 2009.

4. Deloria, Vine, Jr., Singing for a Spirit: A Portrait of the Dakota Sioux, Sante Fe: Clear Light Publishers, 1999.

5. Heim, Mark S., Saved from Sacrifice: A Theology of the Cross; Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2006.

6. Howe, M. A. DeWolfe, The Life and Labors of Bishop Hare: Apostle to the
Sioux
; New York: Sturgis & Walton Co., 1913.

7. Kenny, Kevin, Peaceable Kingdom Lost: The Paxton Boys and the Destruction of William Penn’s Holy Experiement, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009.

8. Moulton, Phillips, P., Editor, The Journal and Major Essays of John Woolman; Richmanon, Indiana: Friends United Press, 2001

9. Norton, Mary Beth, In the Devil’s Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692; New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002.

10. Potter, Tracy, Sheheke, Mandan Indian Diplomat: The Story of White Coyote, Thomas Jefferson, and Lewis and Clark; Washburn: Fort Mandan Press, 2003.

11. Preston, David L., The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667-1783; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009.

12. Salisbury, Neal, Editor, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God, Together with the Faithfulness of His Promises Displayed: Being a Narrative of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson and Related Documents; Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1997.

13. Twelves, The Rev. J. Wesley, D.D., “A History of Kensington,” Unpublished paper.

14. Szasz, Margaret Connell, Editor, Between Indian and White Worlds: The Cultural Broker; Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994.

15. Utley, Robert M., Sitting Bull: The Life and Times of an American Patriot; New York: Holt Paperback, Henry Holt and Company, 2008.